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cook :
polynesian
surf-riding, circa 1778
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The Reports
Three excerpts
are
attributed to surgeons - Anderson, Ellis and Samwell.
Two reports are
by naval officers Clerke and King, and one by a midshipman,
GeorgeGilbert.
The journalists
served on
The final
report,
attributed to King, is a construction by Rev. Douglas and
bears little
relationship to King's report in Beaglehole (1967).
The locations
are
also diverse
Clerke's report
of canoe surfing from Tahiti
The Format
I have
attempted
to note the earliest publication of each extract and any
subsequent reproduction.
These are not
exhaustive.
The rank of
the crew
members is given at the time of their report.
Note that after
Cook;s death there was a re-allocation of duties on both
vessels.
I have made an
attempt
to note the possible locations of the accounts, essentially by
correlating
Finney
and
Houston (1966) and Robson(2000).
An extended
analysis
is included at Surf-riding Locations.
The quotations have their original spelling and grammar, however I have spaced each sentence to be consistent with my preferred monitor presentation (as illustrated here).
The
biographical
notes are brief, with a focus on the the history of the
publication.
I would like to
thank Alan Twigg,
British Columbia,
for permission to quote from his extensive notes.
Where applicable, I have included some comments noting the research thread.
THE VOYAGES
OF
JAMES COOK R.N.
James Cook lead
three scientific and exploratory expeditions to the Pacific
Ocean for the
British Navy, from 1768 to 1780.
His
achievements
were considerable.
The first
voyage
(1768-1771), in the Endeavour, recorded the transit of
Venus from
Tahiti, circumnavigated New Zealand and established the extent
of the east
coast of Australia.
This largely
disproved
a prevalent theory, Terra Australis incognita, of a
massive southern
continent - ostensibly to balance those of the northern
hemisphere.
The voyage was
expertly
recorded (note Cook's superb mapping techniques) and returned
a huge collection
of cultural and botanical specimens, largely due to Joseph
Banks and Dr
Solander.
These elements
were
also features of the subsequent voyages.
The second
voyage
(1772 - 1775), in the Resolution accompanied by the Adventure,
firmly
located the known islands of the Pacific ocean and discovered
several
others.
It was probably
the first voyage below the Antarctic Circle and was terminal
for the theory
of Terra Australis incognita.
The voyage
emphatically
proved the worth of John
Harrison's
maritime chronometer to calculate longitude and set new
standards of naval
health care - of four deaths, only one crew member died of
sickness.
Cook
recognized
Polynesia as a distinct cultural entity and largely defined
its massive
spread across the Pacific.
The third
voyage
(1776 - 1780), also in the
Resolution but now accompanied
by the Discovery,
failed to locate the North West Passage but in
the process an extensive area of the North Pacific coasts was
explored
and mapped.
Further Pacific
islands were discovered, notably the Hawaiian islands, where
Cook would
be killed at Kealakekua Bay, Hawai'i on the 14th February
1779.
Command of the
expedition
and the Resolution fell to Charles Clerke, the captain
of the Discovery
who had sailed with Cook on his previous two Pacific voyages.
Lt. James King
of
the Resolution was promoted to first lieutenant.
John Gore,
Cook's
first lieutenant who had sailed on the Endeavour, took
command of
the Discovery.
Other crew members of the Resolution included artist John Webber and Master William Bligh.
Clerke
determined
that he should continue to fulfil Cook's orders and leaving
Hawaii in March
1779, the expedition returned to the North Pacific.
Charles Clerke
died
at sea on the 21st August 1779 and Gore took command of the Resolution
with King taking command of the Discovery.
Following the
return
to England on the 4th October 1780, King was selected to edit
the logs
and journals to prepare them for publication.
Reference
The above
details
of Cook's voyages were largely collated from Robson(2000).
This is a
unique
work with a wealth of information in the form of maps,
providing a wonderful
geographical context to Cook's voyages that is simply not
possible from
written accounts.
Information
specifically
relevant to Hawaii was selected from pages 154 to 155, pages
159 to 160
and the maps 3.12, 3.23, 3.24 and 3.25.
THE
PUBLICATION
OF COOK'S JOURNALS
"Usually
cited
as the first European to set foot in British Columbia,
James Cook posthumously
published the fifth earliest account in English of the
first British landing
in British Columbia.
...
The
British
Admiralty published an edited account of Cook’s voyages in
three quarto
volumes and a large atlas in 1784-1785, now generally
known as 'A Voyage
to the Pacific Ocean'.
The
journals
were heavily edited by Dr. John Douglas, Bishop of
Salisbury.
As
commissioned
by the Lords of the Admiralty, Douglas embellished much of
Cook’s original
journals with material gleaned from Cook’s officers.
In
particular,
Douglas extrapolated from Cook’s reports of ritualistic
dismemberment among
the Nootka, beginning the belief that the Indians engaged
in cannibalism
when Cook had, in fact, described them as “docile,
courteous, good-natured
people.”
Some of
the
more sensational revelations added to the text were
designed to encourage
the spreading of “the blessings of civilization” among the
heathens and
to help sell books.
For
almost
200 years Douglas’ version of Cook’s writings was
erroneously accepted
as Cook’s own. Cook’s journal, with its bloody ending
supplied by James
King, proved popular.
Within
three
days of its publication in 1784, the first printing was
sold out.
There
were
five additional printings that year, plus 14 more by the
turn of the century.
Translations
were
made throughout Europe.
The
original
version of Cook’s journal was edited by J.C. Beaglehole
and finally published
for scholars in the 1960s.
It
reveals
that Cook was a somewhat dull reporter, more interested in
geography than
anthropology.
The
profits
from the publication of Cook’s journals went to the
estates of Cook, James
King and Charles Clerke (Commander of the Discovery), with
a one-eighth
share for William Bligh, master of the Resolution, because
his surveying
work was so essential.
The
irascible
Bligh wrote in ink on the title page of his own copy,
'None of the Maps
and Charts in this publication are from the original
drawings of Lieut.
Henry Roberts, he did no more than copy the original ones
from Captain
Cook who besides myself was the only person that surveyed
and laid the
Coast down, in the Resolution. Every Plan & Chart from
C. Cook’s death
are exact copies of my works.'”
They are an open, candid, active people and the most expert swimmers we had met with; in which they are taught from their very birth: It was very common for women with infants at the breast to come off in Canoes to look at the Ships, and when the surf was so high that they could not land them in the Canoe they used to leap over board with the child in their arms and make their way a shore through a surf that looked dreadfull.
Cook: Voyage
(1991), Volume 3, Part 1, page 281.
Their
Canoes
are exceeding good Boats, inferior to none but those of
the Friendly Isles,
which I suppose some of the best Canoes in the World.
These
People
handle their Boats with great dexterity, and both Men and
Women are so
perfectly masters of themselves in the Water, that it
appears their natural
Element (1); they have another convenience for
conveying themselves
upon the Water (2), which we never met with before
(3); this
is by means of a thin piece of Board about 2 feet broad
& 6 or 8 long
(4),
exactly in the Shape of one of our bone paper cutters (5);
upon
this they get astride with their legs (6), then
laying their breasts
along upon it, they paddle with their Hands and steer with
their Feet (7),
and gain such Way thro' the Water, that they would fairly
go round the
best going Boats we had in the two Ships, in spight of
every Exertion of
the Crew, in the space of a very few minutes. (8)
There were frequently 2 and sometimes upon one of these peices of board (9), which must be devilishly overballasted (10); still by their Management, they apparently made very good Weather of it. (10)"
NOTES
1. "masters
of
themselves in the Water, it appears their natural Element"
Given that many
of the crew could not swim at all, Hawaiian familiarity with
the ocean,
where swimming was a basic community skill, was impressive.
I have
described
this as an aquatic (rather than maritime) culture.
2. "another
convenience
for conveying themselves upon the Water"
Appears to
imply
that the board is an alternative form of transportation to the
canoe.
This is
illustrated
in John Webber's A View of
KaraKakooa,
in Owyhee, circa 1779.
3."which
we
never met with before"
Clerke was on
the
Endeavour
and may, or may not, been aware of Tahitian surf-riding as
observed by
Cook and Banks - see Banks
: Tahiti, 1769.
In this case,
large
boards used for transportation, the activity appears
significantly different.
4. "a
thin
piece of Board about 2 feet broad & 6 or 8 long"
The first three
dimensions are reported in other journals, "8
(feet) long"
is an extreme for these early reports.
It is
apparently
confirmed by a later comment - see Point 7.
5. "the
Shape
of one of our bone paper cutters"
Essentially, a
flat
blade with rounded ends.
These were used
to open letters that were folded and sealed with wax.
The pointed letter-opener did not appear until the introdcution of the envelope.
6. "upon
this
they get astride with their legs"
A stationary
sitting
posture with the board balanced between the legs - a basic
surf-riding
skill.
7. "then
laying
their breasts along upon it, they paddle with their Hands
and steer with
their Feet,"
The common
board
paddling technique.
Note that if
the
board is large enough to fully support the paddler, then the
kicking of
the feet is generally not of assistance to proplusion.
In this case,
the
use of 'steer' rather than 'kick' appears to strongly support
Cleke's estimated
maximum length of eight feet.
8. "gain
such
Way thro' the Water, that they would fairly go round the
best going Boats
we had in the two Ships, in spight of every Exertion of
the Crew, in the
space of a very few minutes."
This appears to
report a contest between the fastest English rowing boat and
Hawaiian board
paddlers, the later proving superior.
9."There
were
frequently
2 and sometimes upon one of these peices of board, which
must be devilishly
overballasted; still by their Management, they apparently
made very good
Weather of it. "
Often one board
was successfully paddled by two natives.
The skill of
the
paddlers overcame what appeared to be an extreme overloading
of the craft.
CHARLES
CLERKE
Besides these, they have another mode of conveying themselves in the water (4), upon very light flat pieces of boards (5), which we called sharkboards, from the similitude the anterior part bore to the head of that fish. (6)
Upon these they will venture into the heaviest surfs (7), and paddling with their hands and feet (8), get on at a great rate. (9)
Indeed, we never saw people so active in the water, which almost seems their natural element. (10)"
NOTES
1. "bottom
being
dark"
Koa wood (Acacia
koa), Holmes
(1993)
page 20.
2. "the
upper
part light"
Probably
'ahakea
(Bobea elator), but possibly others. Holmes(1993)
page
43.
3. "furnished
with
an out-rigger"
An integral
feature
of Polynesian canoes.
4. "another
mode
of conveying themselves in the water"
Appears to
imply
that the board is an alternative form of transport to the
canoe.
This is
illustrated
in John Webber's A View of
KaraKakooa,
in Owyhee, circa 1779.
5. "upon
very
light flat pieces of boards
Implies that
the
boards have been examined closely and must have been held to
report the
weight.
6.
"sharkboards,
from the similitude the anterior (front) part bore
to the head of
that fish."
Indicates a
shaped
nose template, in modern terminology "a rounded pin nose".
7. "Upon
these
they will venture into the heaviest surfs"
Certainly
implies
the boards were paddled in extreme conditions, but it is
unclear if this
is for a specific purpose.
8.
"paddling
with their hands and feet"
The common
prone
board paddling technique.
Note that if
the
board is large enough to fully support the paddler, then the
kicking of
the feet is generally not of assistance to proplusion.
9.
"get
on at a great rate."
This probably
only
comments on the board paddling speed, with only a remote
possibility that
it refers to wave assistance.
10. "Indeed,
we
never saw people so active in the water, which almost
seems their natural
element."
Given that many
of the crew could not swim at all, Hawaiian familiarity with
the ocean,
where swimming was a basic community skill, was impressive.
I have
described
this as an aquatic (rather than maritime) culture.
WILLIAM
ELLIS
"One of
the
most obscure but earliest documents to recall the Pacific
Coast of British
Columbia is a journal published by an assistant surgeon on
the Discovery
and later the Resolution.
The first
edition of William Ellis’ diary appeared two years prior
to the release
of Cook’s narrative. Needing money, Ellis contravened the
dictates of the
Admiralty and sold his narrative to a bookseller for 50
guineas.
...
Ellis’ narrative was reprinted several times, although Ellis did not receive a share of the profits, having relinquished his copyright for a lump sum.
The National Library of Canada retains a copy of Ellis’ two-volume An Authentic Narrative of a Voyage Performed by Captain Cook and Captain Clerke (London: Printed for G. Robinson, J. Sewell and J. Debrett, 1782)."
2. Following
a
online post of Samwell's report, I was
subsequently
contacted by email by Patrick Moser,
July 2006.
Patrick noted
several
significant reports (including Ellis') and supplied the
quotation, reproduced
above.
Sincere thanks
to
Patrick Moser for his substantial contribution to this
subject.
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Please pass this along as a response to Geoff Cater on early historical accounts of surfing.
In the
course
I teach on surf history and culture (at Drury University),
and in an anthology
that I've been putting together based on this course, I've
come across
a number of these early accounts by Cook's mariners.
Several
(including
the one you cite from David Samwell) can be found in the
multi-volume _The
Journals of
Captain
James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery_ edited by J.C.
Beaglehole (Cambridge
UP, 1955-67).
Samwell's entry dates from January 22, 1779, and so possibly precedes King's, whose description takes place between their arrival on January 18 and their departure in March.
Besides the entries by Joseph Banks on Cook's first voyage (which Joe passed along not too long ago) and the famous description of Tahitian canoe riding by William Anderson (not James Cook) on Cook's third voyage, here are several more that may be of interest.
The earliest reference to surfridng appears to be from Charles Clerke, who took command of the Resolution after Cook's death. When Cook first touched in the Islands in 1778, Clerke registered the following comments at either Waimea, Kauai or Kamalino, Ni'ihau between January 19 and February 2, 1778:
"These People handle their Boats with great dexterity, and both Men and Women are so perfectly masters of themselves in the Water, that it appears their natural Element; they have another convenience for conveying themselves upon the Water, which we never met with before; this is by means of a thin piece of Board about 2 feet broad & 6 or 8 long, exactly in the Shape of one of our bone paper cutters; upon this they get astride with their legs, then laying their breasts along upon it, they paddle with their Hands and steer with their Feet, and gain such Way thro' the Water, that they would fairly go round the best going Boats we had in the two Ships, in spight of every Exertion of the Crew, in the space of a very few minutes. There were frequently 2 and sometimes upon one of these peices of board, which must be devilishly overballasted; still by their Management, they apparently made very good Weather of it."
Also in
January
of 1778, William Ellis (Surgeon's Mate) recorded the
following entry at
Waimea, Kauai (from An Authentic Narrative of a Voyage
Performed by Captain
Cook and Captain Clerke in His Majesty's Ships Resolution
and Discovery
(1782))
"Their
canoes
or boats are the neatest we ever saw, and composed of two
different coloured
woods, the bottom being dark, the upper part light, and
furnished with
an out-rigger. Besides these, they have another mode
of conveying
themselves in the water, upon very light flat pieces of
boards, which we
called sharkboards, from the similitude the anterior part
bore to the head
of that fish. Upon these they will venture into the
heaviest surfs,
and paddling with their hands and feet, get on at a great
rate. Indeed,
we never
saw people
so
active in the water, which almost seems their natural
element."
In February
of
1779 (I'm assuming at Kealakekua Bay), Midshipman George
Gilbert
recorded
this observation (from Captain Cook's Final Voyage: The
Journal of Midshipman
George Gilbert (1982)):
"Several of
those
Indians who have not got Canoes have a method of swimming
upon a piece
of wood nearly in the form of a blade of an oar, which is
about six feet
in length, sixteen inches in breadth at one end and about 9
at the other,
and is four or five inches thick, in the middle, tapering
down to an inch
at the sides.
They
lay
themselves upon it length ways, with their breast about the
centre; and
it being sufficient to buoy them up they paddle along with
their hands
and feet at a moderate rate, having the broad end foremost;
and that it
may not meet with any resistance from the water, they keep
it just above
the surface by weighing down upon the other, which they have
underneath
them, betweeen their legs. These pieces of wood are so
nicely balanced
that the most expert of our people at swimming could not
keep upon them
half a minuit without
rolling
off."
This last observation at leasts suggests that some of Cook's men may have tried paddling (or surfing?) on these boards themselves.
At any rate, the presence of these journal entries (more than have been noted in histories of Surfing) emphasizes (at least to my mind) the great fascination these mariners had with surfboards and surfing. Their detailed accounts of surfboard sizes, shapes, and purpose is an important (and mostly undiscovered) link in why and how surfing manages to survive when so many other native pasttimes did not.
All the
best,
Patrick
Moser.
Reply
I replied,
mostly
detailing historical details that have been added to the above
paper.
In response to
Patrick's
final paragraph, I wrote ...
At any rate, the presence of these journal entries (more than have been noted in histories of Surfing) emphasizes (at least to my mind) the great fascination these mariners had with surfboards and surfing. Their detailed accounts of surfboard sizes, shapes, and purpose is an important (and mostly undiscovered) link in why and how surfing manages to survive ...
Very interesting ... I can only make some disjointed observations that may relect on this ...
More than a
maritime
culture - an aquatic culture.
As mariners,
the
journalists had a fascination with all things nautical - there
are extensive
accounts that relate to canoes, seamanship and navigation.
Specifically,
Cook
was amazed that the Hawaiians were there before he was and was
the first
to suggest that Polynesian settlement was the result of
extensive voyages
from the west - a feat that preceded his own voyages.
Given that
some (unknown
proportion) of the crew could not swim at all (Cook and, I
think, King
and note 7. above), Hawaiian familiarity with the ocean, where
swimming
was a basic community skill, must have been impressive.
Obscure thought
- Could Cook have saved himself, if he was able to swim?
The origins of
modern
swimming are difficult to ascertain - a restricted amount of
research has
indicated to me that the development of the common crawl
stroke (the Olympic
freesyle) has at least some import from Polynesian, especially
Hawaiian,
swimming.
I would propose
that there is a technical relationship between 'native'
swimming and board
paddling - the combined overarm stroke and flutter kick.
If this
conjecture
has any validity, then (as Hawaiian surf-riding has now
expanded across
all the world's oceans) Polynesian swimming has now expanded
across the
world's oceans, lakes and swimming pools.
Surf-riding
conditions
and locations
Confident of
their
skills, the Hawaiians chose the most extreme conditions (
'great swell'
-Samwell) for their 'diversion'.
Even in Hawaii,
good surf-riding conditions are not consistant, sublime
conditions are
rare, large and sublime conditions even rarer.
If Cook had not
had extended stays, or if social relations had been mostly
confrontational,
then we may not have these accounts.
However, note
that
these accounts of prone riding seem mostly derive from
Kealakekua Bay,
Hawaii.
Although this
was
probably the most populous area, at this time (winter) the bay
was protected
from the prominant swell direction from the north.
A significant
number
of Hawaiian legends (see Finney (1996), Chapter 3) indicate
that (the now
extinct) Hilo Bay, on the opposite coast of Hawaii, was a
centre of surf-riding
excellence and exposed to the winter north swells, but none of
the 1779
reports indicate knowledge of this.
The other
legendary
centre was Waikiki, Oahu - exposed to the summer south swells
and protected
from the north.
Photographic
evidence
(Edison, circa 1905) confirms that the surf-riding conditions
of Wakiki
for solid wood finless boards can be sublime.
If Cook was
searching
for surf, then probably "he really missed it - he should have
been there
six months ago!" (paraphasing Brown, 1966).
The wave as
icon
For each riding
location ('surf break') there are specific features of
paddle-out, take-off
and the general wave characteristics.
For each
individual
wave another specific set of variables is operational.
Each wave (an
animated
expression of climatic forces?) is structually, aesthetically
and temporaly
unique in nature.
An early
representation
of the wave as icon is Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) : Under
the wave
off Kanagawa c.1825?1831?
The wave as
icon
retains its attaction in contemporary times - evidenced by the
number of
photographs of riderless wavescapes that are regulary printed.
Surf-riding,
wave-riding,
surf-shooting, wave-sliding, he'e nalu
Finney's list
of
traditional Hawaiian riding and wave terminology (1996,
Appendix A) and
the early written reports appear to confirm that traditional
riders transversed
the wave face in the same manner as all subsequent riders.
The mechanics
of
this are both highly complex (that is, I don't understand
them) and highly
variable.*
For Cook's
crew,
surf-riding was like no other previous experienced human
activity - it
was unique.
In my opinion
it
is still the case that surf-riding is an unique human
activity.
*I have made
one
(poor) attempt to deal with this problem ...
http://www.surfresearch.com.au/a_surfboard_dynamics.html
The
surfboard
The Hawaiians
further
advanced their activity by the development of specific craft
to maximize
their wave-riding performance.
Board
construction
was a combination of highly developed craftsmanship and an
access to a
rich source of building materials - specifically the massive
koa forests
of the Hawaiian islands.
This is easily
seen
in the accounts of the number, the size and the quality of
workmanship
of Hawaiian canoes.
The earliest surboards were hand-shaped objects (a sculpture) and despite the application of modern technologies, the basic surfboard retained hand-shaping at least until the end of the twentith century.
when
so
many other native pasttimes did not.
Most native
pastimes
had some European equivalent - board games, wrestling,
running, sailing,
dance.
Hawaiian
surf-riding
was a highly developed unique activity - and the waves are
still there.