surfresearch.com.au  newspapers : 1840-1859

March 25.
On waking at daylight, I found that the natives did not know whereabouts they were, and we stood first to the northward and then to the southward, looking for a landmark.
They at length discovered that we were off a place called Turakina, some miles to the northward of Rangitiki.
The swell from S.W. continued, and a heavy surf thundered on the beach.
There was, however, no wind.
Soon after passing the mouth of a river called the Wangaihu, the natives discovered something threatening in the aspect of the weather, and preferred landing through the surf here to proceeding to Wanganui.
All preparations were made for the worst chance; guns and other heavy goods were lashed to the thwarts, and blankets and mats were stripped off.
The canoe's head was then turned to the beach, and she went gallantly through the surf, which broke nearly half a mile out from the shore.
The natives shouted a lively chorus, interspersed with cries of "tena! tena!" or "pull away," from the steersmen, and of "ki a tika," or "keep her straight," from the others.
We got safe ashore, at the expense of filling everything with salt water.

National Library of New Zealand : PAPERSPAST
MR. E. J. WAKEFIELD'S LATE EXPEDITION.
New Zealand Gazette and Wellington Spectator, Volume I, Issue 6, 16 May 1840, Page 3
http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/

24.- Having paid for the hire of my canoe, we started at about ten or eleven a.m., amidst shoats of "airs" and discharges of muskets from the shore.
It was a broad strongly built canoe, with an extra top side for sea travelling.
My crew eonsisted of seven paddlers, two helmsmen, ons of whom steered with a paddle, while the other -managed a clumsy imitation of the steer oar used in whale boats.
This is an improvement lately adopted in all canoes-intended to go to sea.
Three women, a child, and three dogs, completed our muster roll.
Among the paddlers is a roan, named E Au, a son of Te Hangi Wakaruw.
A fresh south west breeze favoured us until mediad gol from under cover of apiti, when a heavy S.W. swell began to set in, and the wind soon shifted round to that quarter.
Canoes are bad vessels for running before the wind ; as it is impossible for the most skillful steersman to keep them straight. Accordingly, when off Otakj, (a river about lei - miles north of Waikanai, where many of the Ngateraukawa tribe reside) we shipped a sea ; ana in reefing the sail, the natives, frightened lest their v enemies should come out and catch them, managed to break «he yard.
It was soon fished, however, and we proceeded before a fine breeze.
The next river is called-Obau, but is, I believe, very insignificant.
About sn hour before sundown, we passed the entrance of the Maewatu river, whose mouth, I am credibly informed, there are
three fathoms water at high tide.
There are omi groves of fine straight timber close torch mouth of the river, which form a good landmark from the sea.
Near here, too, the range of hills takes a sudden turn to the eastward, and thus the low land extends very far inland, until the hill; to the south of the Tonga Biro mountaii again confide it to about thirty or forty miles.
The wind now died away, and they, paddled hard.
On waking at daylight, I found that the natives did not know whereabouts they were, and we stood first to the northward and then to the southward, looking for a landmark.
They at length discovered that we were off a place called Turakina, some miles to the northward of Rangitiki.
The swell from S.W. continued, and a heavy surf thundered on the beach.
There was, however, no wind.
Soon after passing the mouth of a river called the Wangaihu, the natives discovered something threatening in the aspect of the weather, and preferred landing through the surf here to proceeding to Wanganui.
All preparations were made for the worst chance; guns and other heavy goods were lashed to the thwarts, and blankets and mats were stripped off.
The canoe's head was then turned to the beach, and she went gallantly through the surf, which broke nearly half a mile out from the shore.
The natives shouted a lively chorus, interspersed with cries of "tena! tena!" or "pull away," from the steersmen, and of "ki a tika," or "keep her straight," from the others.
We got safe ashore, at the expense of filling everything with salt water.
The coast is here of the same character as it is all the way from Pari Pari, vis: a clear sandy beach, backed by a belt of low barren sandhills covered with driftwood.
We encamped on the sand, and sent a messenger after to Wanganui to announce our arrival to E Kora Ka, a son of T Roogi Wakarurn, whom we bad brought round here from Waikanai, in the ?Vary, in November last.

Trove
1840 'NEW ZEALAND.—COL. WAKEFIELD'S EXPLORATORY EXPEDITION.', Southern Australian (Adelaide, SA : 1838 - 1844), 14 August, p. 4, viewed 15 May, 2013, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71619769

Upon the climate of Illawarra generally; it is needless to make any comment, as it is so well known to exceed in the equability of its temperature every other part of the Coast.
A range of neat and commodious Bathing Houses has by permission of His Excellency the Governor been erected on Gipps' Point, for the accommodation of Ladies, and the Bath which is being formed in a natural Basin, from which the Surf will be quite excluded, will be completed within a month.

Trove
1841 'Classified Advertising.', The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1803 - 1842), 3 April, p. 4, viewed 15 May, 2013, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article2552935

Trove
1844 'WOLLONGONG.', The Australian (Sydney, NSW : 1824 - 1848), 27 January, p. 3, viewed 17 May, 2013,
http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37118616

The Cutter "Jane Scott."-
This vessel, which was reported ashore at the Bellinger, having been got off, took in a cargo of cedar for Sydney, and left there on the 20th May ; but an easterly gale coming on, she was compelled to stand out to sea.
The wind soon veered round to the westward, and increased to such a degree that she was driven out of sight of land, and did not make it again until fourteen days after, when they put into Broulee, and obtained some provisions.
There were four men and a woman passenger on board, and their sufferings must have been extreme, having been eight days with only a biscuit and half a pint of water each per diem.
To add to their misfortunes, after leaving Broulee the whole of her canvas was blown clean away, and they arived off the signal station yesterday at the mercy of the winds, when two of the pilots repaired to her assistance (Messrs. Jibbon and Bainbridge), and being joined by Mr. Powell, in the Water Police Boat, they towed her safely into Watson's Brty.
One of the crew had swam through the surf at Bondi, upon whose arrival in Sydney the Sophia June was dispatched to bring her up to the Albion Wharf.

Trove
1844 'CANTON.', The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), 15 June, p. 2, viewed 17 May, 2013,
http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article12409644

On the morning of the 12th August, 1844, Her Majesty's Wtli liegiment, about 1000 strong, marched out of Sydney Barracks to embark for Calcutta
...
Saturday, 23rd.-The Runnimede's longboat nearly ready for sea; collecting stores tor her, and making preparations to send her away.
Natives seen on the other island, with two large canoes.

 Thursday, 23rd.-Fatigue and working parties clearing out and deepening the wells; the wells beginning to fail ; several of the officers leave the ship, their tents on shore being completed ; the miasma arising from the mangrove swamp very disagreeable at low water.

Beautiful shells of varions kinds to be found on the beach.
A good deal amused at first, to observe those of a similar description to those we had been accustomed to see quietly ornamenting chimney.pieces at home, running about here in every direction.

Monday, 2nd.-Working party clearing and deepenlng the wells and water holes.
The bellows finished.
The sawyers collecting spars, and bringing them to their pit.
The blacksmiths got the tiller of the Briton's rudder for an anvil, and punch the copper bolts out of her stern ports, to make nails with, not having a dozen left.
The sailors' canoe, which was nearly finished, took fire in the night, and both her gunwales were burnt down.

Tuesday, 3rd.- Regular morning parades at 7, A. M., commenced this day, the guards mounting immediately after.
The wells and water holes failing fast, two officers go in search of w ater, and find a running stream under the hills about a mile from the camp, very difficult to reach from the denseness of the jungle; Aro the bush in several places to clear the scrub off.
Two native canoes fishing on the opposite island.
The keel of the new boat put down 23 feet long.
The sawyers and blacksmiths commenced work.
The sailors cleared ...  the burnt part from their canoe, and set about planking her sides, as the only way to repair the damages; fires blatzing at night in front of the several camps and picquet tents, give the bay quite the appearance of a village.

Friday, 6th.- Several men admitted into hospital with fever, and affections of the head ; a detachment order-"Prohibiting bathing in the heat of the day, or otherwise exposing themselves in the sun."
Some wicker-work canoes, covered with tarred canvass, made by the soldiers, paddling about and fishing in the Bay.

Saturday, theSailors finished their canoe, and launched it in the afternoon; found to answer better than was expected, after being so much damaged by the fire.

Monday, 9th.-The Runnimede got a spar over her quarter lashed to the maizen mast to shove her up.
The heavy surf causing her to bump aft more than was agreeable ; quite a fleet of canoes in the Bay fishing and paddling about.

Friday, 13th. -Repaired and pitched the canoe, and got a lug sail made for her, and put on wash boards, false keel, and stem post, which improved her very much.

Saturday, I4th.- A party of officers went to tho North arrm, and crossed over to the other Island in the canoe ; saw a wild beast in the bush, of the Panther species.
Found several bundles of pig's heads tied with cane, laid together in heaps, and some stones suspended from the brunches of a tree by rattan, supposed to be some religious ceremony of the natives; a quantity of excellent oysters on the rocks; made a fire and dined on them.

Sunday, 15th.-Divine service as usual
...
 In the afternoon n soldier of the 80th was unfortunately drowned in the surf while bathing.
Monthly lo'<A.-Blowing fresh, with a heavy surf on ; no communication with the schooner ; full rations were issued this day.

Monday J3r«f -Weather still wet and squally, and heavy surf running 1-atiguo working parties completed filling water tanks on the heath tor the Pinfon, repairing the causeway leading through the mangrove swamp to the Unto«, and clearing out of the wells.
The ration of meat reducid from  x lb to x lb per diem
...
No roast beef and although our sugar was gone, we contrived to have a very good plum pudding without it, must not be over particular in the Audaniims, carpenters finished caulking, and gave the boat lier first coat of paint, a sailor of the Jfimmiiitil« drowned in the surf by the upsetting of the dingy.

Saturdav 28th -At daylight a man of war brig and two small schooners in sight
The brig stood on to the southward, the schooners rounding the reef came to an author in the Bay Our long boat went out to them, and returned with an officer of the Honorable Company s Marine T
he schooners ive found were two of the flotilla from Moulmein, and the brig of nar, tho Pilot, Captain Jervis Mr M hito t,av o us the ncltoino rutclll
gillio of the safe urrival of tho rest of the regiment at Ciiliutta, as also Unit transports from Moulmein were on their na) to take us oft the Island Our non boat nos launched at tvvtlve oclock, and christmed in due form Andaman , sho is tuent) seven feet overall, six feet six beam, aud pulls six oars, sho n ent through the surf bcautifulh, and appears to bo an excellent sea boat The Pilot, brig of war, cunio to anchor on tho leo sido

Saturday The remainder of the alotuclimcnt of the 50th embarked in the Agnes Lee.
At night, the natives again assemblng in and around the camp, the marines of the Pilot were landed to protect the wrecks, several shots fired during tho night

¡sun Uni ith -The lost detachment of the wrecked troops, after a sojourn of 55 days on this most inhospitable island, sailed this day for Calcutta in the Annes Lee.
The vovnge was most prosperous, the several ships reaching their destination within a ten days of each other
The detachment of the 10th and 50th proceeded on to Chinsurah by steam, while the 80th landed in Calcutta and took up their quarters in Fort MlUiam.

Thus happily terminated one of the most trying and disastrous shipwrecks upon record.

Trove
1845 'JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE AND WRECK OF THE "BRITON," TRANSPORT.', The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), 26 June, p. 2, viewed 18 May, 2013, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article12880519

The Schooner " Will Watch."-
We regret to state that Captain Forbes, who left this in the Will Watch, died about five weeks since, owing to the following circumstances:
Having made Sannder's Island they stood in shore for the purpose of trading, and having lowered a boat a native swam off to her outside the surf, and pointed out a place where he said it was practicable to land.
Captain Forbes, Mr. John Russell, and three of the crew were in the boat, but on standing for the shore she was swamped in running through the surf, and two of the seamen were drowned.
Mr. Russell was in the water about a quarter of an hour, and after great exertion reached the shore tchll exhausted.
Captain Forbes having caught hold of an oar, was buffeted about among the rocks, but was eventually washed ashore insensible.
The usual remedies being resorted to he was partially recovered, but about ten days after expired from the bruises received.
- Ibid. [Sydney Herald]

Trove
1845 'MISCELLANEOUS.', Launceston Examiner (Tas. : 1842 - 1899), 31 May, p. 4 Edition: AFTERNOON, viewed 17 May, 2013, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36240113

A Taheitan amongst the Aborigines. -
On Sunday last, Mr. Burnet, tbe surveyor returned from the Bay, where he has been, lately engaged in marking the channel at the Northern Entrance, bringing with him a native of Otaheite, named George Moy, who, for many months past, has been living with a tribe of blacks inhabiting the coast.

National Library of New Zealand : PAPERSPAST
MORETON BAY.
Wellington Independent, Volume II, Issue 106, 17 October 1846, Page 3
http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/ f

Trove
1850 'No title.', The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), 16 April, p. 2, viewed 17 May, 2013, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article12917157

The management of a boat in tne dangerous circumstances of a heavy sea and broken water is altogether so practical a thing, that it may-be thought no rules or instructions can be given which would be of much value to those called on to put them in execution.
And undoubtedly, experience alone can give that confidence and presence of mind which, in addition to skilfulness, are often "indispensable to safety in such circumstances."
Nevertheless, as all our coast boatmen are not equally skilful, and as the majority of other sailors have no experience in the managing of boats in a heavy surf, we propose to offer some recommendations, not the result of our. own experience alone, but of that collected from various parts of our coasts.
In offering our opinion on so important a matter as the proper.management of a boat in a surf, on which life or death will, often depend, we desire to do so with all deference to those who.have already experience for a guide, who baring practical .knowledge of the particular character of the sea and surf in their own localities, and of, their own boats, have learned that particular management which has appeared most suitable to them.
They will be able to compare our suggestions with their experience, and will then be guided by their own judgement in a matter wherein their own safety is concerned; but they are not the persons for whose use our recommendations are more especially offered.

When it is considered how various is the character of broken water, according as it is on a beach, in a tide-way, in the bar of a river, or the edge of a shoal, how it will vary according to the steepness or flatness of the shore, the depth of the water, the relative directions of the current or tide and the wind; and again of the wind and the shore, also; and when also the variety in the build, and.size of tho boats, in different localities is remembered, the conclusion will rightly become to, that no rule will be applicable to meet all cases.
That the same rule will not apply alike to the north country coble, the Yarmouth or Deal galley, the Fortland laurette, the ship's long boat, and the powerful and unsubmergible life-boat.
That it will not apply alike to the irregular sea on the edge of a shoal, as on the Herd Sand off the Tyne, to the long and steady rollers advancing majestically in paralla! lines on the open beach on exposed parts of the coast, or to the short and dangerous sea occasioned by the set of tides, -called, a race, as; that off Portland.
There will be spepial local peculiarities to be consulted, at every, locality, which will call for some deviation in detail from 'any general rule,' yet on the other ' hand' there are undoubtedly: some leading principles which are more or less applicable to all, and which should therefore however
borne, in mind.

With a view to ascertain as far as practicable the results of local experience, and as to how far any general rule might apply, the committee of the National Lifeboat Institution some time since caused a series of questions on the management of boats in a surf and broken water, to be printed, and, through the assistance of the officers of coast-guard, circulated round the coast..

To these questions replies were received from 138 different places on tho coasts of the United Kingdom, and they contain a large amount of valuable information.
Just our observations on the subject we propose to state, the substance of the information tims obtained on the different points of management, and to add our own comments upon them.
We will premise that our remarks chiefly refer to open boats only, which are managed either by oars alone, or, indifferently with soails and oars.

Our subject will then chiefly be arranged in two divisions, viz., tile proper management on going off from the shore against a heavy sea, and that on running before a surf or heavy broken sea for the land.
Wo had at first proposed to give a complete analysis of the coast returns above alluded to, but we found that, the replies form 138 places to 28 distinct questions would not only have made our remarks of too complicated and lengthened a character, but that to have arranged and compared the whole of these 3,584 replies, one with another, individually, would have occupied more time than we had at command to devote to it; our remarks are therefore, necessarily, of amore general character, drawn from the comparisons we have ourselves made between the several returns from the different localities.

Whilst on some questions, in the local information above referred to, a curious contrast of opinion on the same points may sometimes be observed, even at places contiguous to each other, yet on one point, viz, as to the relative amount of danger on going off against a head sea, and on running before it, the opinion is almost unanimous, that the greater danger exists when running before or away from a sea; also, that this greater danger arises from the liability of boats to broach to, or turn round broadside to the sea, when in the majority of cases, if the sea be heavy, they are upset.
Another point on which nearly all agree is that open boats under sail before entering the broken water, on running for the land, should take in their sails and go through under oars.

On the question of management, on going off against a broken sea, and on returning before one, we will give the question verbatim as it was circulated on the coast.
It was as follows: in rowing to windward, whether in an open boat or a life-boat, would you give a boat all possible speed against a heavy broken sea on its approach ; and when running before one, would you do the same away from it; or, in either case, would you check the boat's way until it had passed?

The replies to this question were thus divided:
On going off 18 were in favour of giving all speed ; 81 in favour of checking speed.
On running before a sea, 27 in favour of giving all speed, 71 in favour of checking speed.
Other replies were indirect, or suggested other expedients to which we shall presently allude.

It will be observed that the opinions are on these points more conflicting than might have been anticipated; as, however, there can be but one right way to manage boats placed in similar circumstances, it follows that either the boatmen at some parts of the coasts are unacquainted; with the proper management, or that there are local circumstances which make it vary at different places; probably both of these causes must be referred to in order to account for the disparity above displayed.

On tho first point, that of going off through broken water, the replies are of four kinds.
1. Give all speed possible.
2. Check speed.
3. Keep steerage-way on the boot (which may bo considered equivalent to giving all speed possible against a head broken-sea).
4. Avoid the sea by watching for a smooth.

On the second point, that of running for the shore before a heavy broken sea, tho replies are.
1. Check speed as much as possible
2. Give all speed possible.
3. Bring all weights aft and keep the boat well down by the stern.
4. Tow astern a pig of ballast or other weight, or a hollow conical canvas bag called a "drogue."
5. Watch opportunity, and avoid the sea. 0
6. Keep steerage-way on the boat.
7. If under sail, run in under small head sail only.
8. In sail, and take the boat in under oars.
9. Steer with an oar on each, quarter.
10. Tum tho bow round to the sea, and back in stern foremost.

On tho first point, the majority of places where the seamen are noted for skill and experience are in favour, of giving a boat all the speed possible on going off, against a broken sen.
On tho north-eastern coast of England, in Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire, and, again, on tho coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, it appears to be the almost universal custom to do so.
As, again, on the second point, it is their custom to check a boats way, when running, and even at some places, to row back against each heavy sea until it has passed, then to follow it in, repeating the operation on each heavy sea overtaking the boat.

A singular exception to tho above rule is Deal, where tho boatmen are notoriously courageous and experienced, and where their custom appears, by the replies received, to be exactly tho reverse of the above, giving all speed on running before a sea, and checking speed on going off against it.
It appears, however, in reply to another question, that several boats have been lost at Deal by broaching-to and upsetting when running before a sea.
On the first:point, going off against a sea, the custom may be resolved into two kinds- to give all speed through a broken sea, and to check speed on the immediate approach of a heavy wave.
As above stated, the giving steerage way is equivalent to all speed, as against a gale and bend sea no boat can do more than keep steerage-way on her, whilst tho majority of boats could not be rowed ahead with sufficient speed to answer their helms in consequence of which fact life-boats generally are steered by oars at the stern or quarter instead of with a rudder.
Again, the rule to avoid a sea if possible is only applicable to places where, from the steepness of the shore, the sea does not break till close to it, when boats, by the right opportunity being watched for, may often avoid the worst of the sea ; where, however, the shore is flat, and the sea breaks at a quarter of a mile or more from the beach, a boat must of necessity encounter, a succession of seas before she is clear of the broken water on going off, and after she has entered it on running for the land.

The danger of going off is of two kinds.
1st, the risk of being overwhelmed by tho sea breaking over the bow of the boat and filling her.
2ndly, of being driven back by tlie sea and turned end over end, or driven down stern foremost, or turned round broadside to the sea and capsized by the same or the following wave before abe can be got head to the sea again.
The first danger will be more or less imminent in proportion to the size of the boat and the height of her bow as compared with the magnitude of the waves.
If the boat be small, with a low bow, it would be folly to row her right at the crest of a heavy roller, the moment of its curling over it would then fill into and (swamp) the boat.
The preferable management would doubtless be, if possible, so to place her as that each sea should break a little ahead of her yet this would often be very difficult to effect.
The second danger will be the more imminent the less way there is on the boat, and the fuller and bluffer her bow  it would probably also be greater in a light than a heavy boat, the cause being, that the boat not having sufficient speed or inertia to carry her up the ascent of the approaching wave, and over its crest, she is carried back by it, and may then, if a short boat, be turned instantly end over end, if a long one, be driven down stern foremost, or turned broadside to the sea, and capsized by the same or the next wave.
On this point our opinion as to the management is, that in a small boat, if possible, the seas should he avoided until after breaking, but if they cannot be so,that the utmost 'speed' which oars can effect should be given to the boat; rwhilst in larger boats, and in life-boats, which are not in the same danger of swamping, the utmost speed should invariably be given; indeed we feel persuaded that the safety of a boat will often depend, in a realty heavy sea, on preserving her headway, and that the wide or bluff boat which cannot retain its headway, is, for that reason, often more unsafe than a narrower and sharper boat.

That a boat or any other vessel will actually float lighter, and would therefore be less easily submerged by great increase of speed, has been proved by experiment,  yet without losing the advantage of the inertia derived I from the actual weight of the vessel.
We may illustrate the circumstance by the well known effects exhibited by throwing a stone with considerable velocity obliquely to the surface of water, which boys denominate "duck and drake," or by a shot fired horizontally from a gun ; in either case a heavy body, which would immediately sink if dropped perpendicularly into the water, not only refuses to be submerged, but actually leaps repeatedly above the surface altogether, until its velocity is sufficiently diminished, when it sinks.
So if a boat could be , propelled with sufficient velocity, it would skim the surface only, and would refuse to sink.
On the second point, running before a broken sea, an equal Variety of management is observable, as practised on the coast, yet all alike intended to meet the one great risk of "broaching to," which nearly all agree in considering to bo the greatest danger to which a boat can be exposed, and, to be that which calls for the most ,skill and management to avoide it.

As before observed, the greater number of skilful boatmen on the coast, are in the habit of checking a boat's way through the water, or of backing her against a heavy sea on its approach.
Their practice is to stop the boat's way by backing their oars until the crost of the wave has struck the boat's stern and passed her midship part, then to give way again, running in on the back of that wave, as far as they may be able to, then watching for the approach of the next, and repeating the same operation until they arrive at the beach, being careful, by steering with oars at the quarter or stern, to keep the boat, as far as possible, end on to the direction in which the sea is running.
It must he here obsorved that this management is by far varied according to the character of the boat that in cobles, and, other, square-sterned boats which have their bows better formed for meeting a sea than their sterns are, their position is reversed before entering the broken water, and they are taken in stern foremost and bow outwards, but the same principle being acted on of rowing back to meet each heavy wave, instead of running from it.
In a sailing-boat this principia can only be so far acted on as to diminish thoeboat's speed through the water by taking her in under a very reduced amount of sail, which is commonly, done, and by towing weights or instruments made for the .purpose.

The advocates of this system of management hove certainly reason on their side, in addition to experience; for as all acknowledge that there is greater danger in running before a broken sea than in going off against it, it is obvious that the more the latter operation can be assimilated to the former the safer it must be also, which is therefore effected by an alternate progressive and retrogressive movement, the latter being effected at the particular moments when the progressive motion would be dangerous.
The true theory on which this practice is founded we will endeavour presently to explain.

Proceeding, then, to the opposite practice, of giving a boat speed, in fact running away from the sea, which constitutes the other important distinctions in practice.
The principle then acted on is to escape from the danger as fast as possible, and other expedients are then resorted to to prevent the risk of broaching to.
The most common of these is to trim the boat by the stern, by bringing all moveable weights aft (this supposes her stern to be outwards ; if it were being taken in stern foremost, she would then be trimmed by the head).
The force of the sea or wind on either quarter has then less power to beat it off, and cause the boat to broach to, than it would have if the stern were light.
Another expedient is to tow a pig of ballast, or a basket, or other instrument, which by its weight or hold on the water has the effect of o drag on the rear end of the boat, and provenís its being boat to leeward by the sea, thus keeping her end on to it.
On the coast of Norfolk the following ingenious plan is commonly practised.
Tho boat- men there employ an instrument for the above purpose called a " drogue;" it is a conical shaped canvas bag, of the form of a common candle extinguisher, above two feet diameter at the base or mouth of the bag, and six feet long, having a small opening at the other end, or apex of the cone.
When running before a heavy sea in broken water, the drogue is thrown over from the stern, and towed by a stout rope with the large and foremost, when it instantly fills, and from the resistance it opposes to the water holds the stern back, and prevents the boat's broaching to as soon as the danger is past, the large tow rope is let go, and the drogue then towed with the smaller end foremost by a small line attached to that end; it then immediately collapses, is emptied of water, and offers but little resistance,

The steering with an oar on each quarter is another expedient employed to prevent broaching to, as, when running, a boat will not answer her helm on being overtaken by a sea.

The recommendation to watch for an opportunity and avoid a sea, equally in running as on going off, could only be practiced at those localities where the beach is steep.

In reply to tho question as, to whether any particular kinds of boats aro more liable than others to broach-to, the answers given are so conflicting and contradictory as to afford no information on the point.

In reply to another, question, as to the cause of a boat's brooching-to, the almost invariable answer is, "becauso the stern is thrown out of the water, and the rudder therefore ceases to act."
From our own observation we have formed the opinion that this is not the case, although it is quite true that at the moment of broaching-to a boat will not answer her helm.

The phenomenon of broaching-to we believe, may be correctly accounted for as follows :-
On a boat encountering o heavy broken sea or roller end on, if she be stationary or is being propelled in a contrary direction to the wave, she will receive its blow, and it will quickly pass by her, her own inertia preventing her being carried away by it.
If however she is being propelled in the some direction as the wave, and rnnnng rapidly through the water with her stern towards them, on a wave overtaking her, its first effect is to throw her stem up and to depress her bow, but so for from her rudder being out of wnter, both it and her stern are buried in the crest of the wave; in consequence, however, of her previous motion being in tho same direction as that of the wave, she now offers so slight resistance to it, that instead of its passing her, she is hurried along with it at a rapid rate over the ground, her stern high up still immersed in the crest of the sea, and her bow low down at its base; as the wave approaches shallow water, its inshore surface approaches more and more nearly to a perpendicular and the tendency of the boat to run down this steep inclination, added to the momentum she has already from her previous motion, causes her to run her bow under water, when her buoyancy at that end being destroyed, her stern still light, is pressed onward by the summit of the wave, and the undercurrent, from the last receding wave at the same time acting on her bow, she is instantly, if a short boat turned "end over end," or if a long one, capsized quarterwise.
If she have so high a bow that it does not become altogether immersed, or if, as in a life-boat, the end of the boat is occupied by a water-tight air case, to the height of the gunwale, so as to prevent the admission of the water over the bow, the effect then is that the boat is instantaneously turned round broadside to the sea, when again, unless she be a  life-boat of a superior description, she is almost certain to be upset.
In the circumstances thus dercribed, the sole cause of a boat's running herself under water and broaching to, is that of running from a sea instead of awaiting it, and suffering it to pass by; and the cause of the rudder being useless to keep the boat end on to the wave, is not that it is thrown out of the water (although at other times it-doubtless is so), for it is, actually buried in it, as is also the stern of the boat up to the gunwale, but it is because it is stationary in it, the crest of the wave having acquired an actually progressive motion equal to that of the boat.
If on the other hand the wave passes the boat, as its crest advances from the stern to the fore part, the rudder and stem are thrown out of the water; steering oars are therefore a most valuable auxiliary aid when running before a sea; but we would recommend the use of a rudder as well.

We hare been rather prolix in our account of the phenomenon of b -ing-to, because it is a very interesting one, which it is important should be understood in order to arrive at the proper management and to obviate its disastrous effect, which have been TOOT« foto) to the sea and property of boatmen on our coast than those proceeding from any other cause whatever.

After the danger of broaching-to has asssed, there remains the lesser danger of beaching ; and yet some skill is here also required to prevent a boat capsizing, or swamping in the surf.
The general custom appears to be that where the beach is more or less steep, she is steered into it in an oblique direction, the bow being turned partially "round" towards that direction from which the sea is running, which then catches the boat under her counter, and lifts her broadside on to the beach.
If, however, the shore be very flat, she is steered perpendicularly to the beach.

We have now only to offer our own opinion and recommendations on the subject for the use of those who have not already experience and skill for their guides, and for the consideration of those who have.
Amongst the former, we would especially address ourselves to the crews of merchant vessels who, having to desert their ships from any cause, and take to then boats, may attempt to land on the open coast, since no winter passes by without some of their number losing their lives in such attempts. .

1st. On going off from the shore against a heavy broken sea, whether from the beach on an open coast, or over the bar, of a river, and .whether the beach be steep or flat, it may be presumed that, whatever be the urgency of the case, no boat which is not of sufficient size and power, in proportion to  the nature of the sea, to offer some chance of safety and success, will be taken off.
In any such boat, however, our opinion is, that unless from the steepness of the beach and nature of the sea, she can; by skilful management, be made to avoid it by watching a favourable opportunity, the safest plan is to give her all the' speed which can be obtained by rowing.

For the larger descriptions of boat taken off under sail,  no rule can be given; the amount of sail and management must depend entirely on the character of the boat, on her rig, size of her sails, strength of her gear, on her stability, and the knowledge and experience which her crew have of her capabilities, &c. , ;

In a life-boat; on going off to the assistance of a wrecked vessel, if the distance from the land is not too great, the whole service should be performed under oars only ; and no masts, or sails, or their gear, should be taken in the .boat, as they necessarily much encumber ¡the rowers and occupy the space which may be needed for the stowage of rescued persons.
If on account of distance from the land it will be indispensable to sail the boat to the site of the wreck, it will still.be advisable (as being safer) to take the boat, if possible, through the broken water under oars, and not to make sail on her until getting beyond it ; experience must, however, on such a point be the chief guide.

2nd. On.the management of a boat, when running through broken water for the land, our unqualified opinion is that the greatest danger consists in following the natural impulse to escape from the advancing seas as rapidly tis possible; no boat can be propelled so fast but that the waves will overtake her, when the results before depicted must take place.
Our recommendations then are:-
1st. Before entering broken water, if a sail be set, take it in, unship the mast, and lash both, with any other spare gear, to  the thwarts of the boat, to prevent it falling over on the Iee side, if the boat should be struck by a sea and thrown on her beam ends.
Next, if the boat he a square sterned one, turn her round with her head to the sea; then row or back her in, carefully keeping her, both with the aid of the rudder and oars, end on to the sea.
Watch each sea as it advances, and check the boat's progress, by rowing or backing the oars, until the brow of the wave has passed the centre of the boat, then go in on the back, or rear side of it, to the land if it can be done, but keeping a constant look out behind for the coming up of the next wave, when the same operation has to be repeated.
Even with these precautions undoubtedly the sea may be so overwhelming, or the boat so inferior, that they may fail to save her, but we conceive them to be her only means of security.
On arrival at the beach she should then, if it be light, be taken end on quite to the shore; if it be steep she should be steered obliquely to it, turning her towards that side from which the sea is running, if it is not doing so at right angles to the beach.

As regards the crows of merchant vessels leaving their ships and attempting to land in their own boats, we recommend that they should not toke to a boat as long as there might be any chance of safety in their ship, especially in the night time ; that if not fitted up as a life boat they should secure, if there should be time to do so, some small empty casks, tightly corked, under the thwarts, and in the head and stem-sheets of the boat; that if the vessel should bo provided with any life-buoys or life-belts, tho former should bo taken in the boat, and tho latter be worn by themselves ; that they should provide her with any long small line that might be available for effecting a communication either with the shore or with another vessel, if any should be at hand.
Other obvious things, such as a bucket, baler, or hand pump, spare thowelpins, rudder and tiller, &c we need scarcely name.
That on leaving their vessel they should, if practicable, make for the nearest harbour or other sheltered place in preference to attempting a landing on the open coast, even if the weather should be fine, or the wind off the land, as there often is a surf on the boach in such situations that would be dangerous to ordinary ships' boats, even in calm and fine weather ; lastly, that, if there should bo a surf along the shore, they should, before entering it, endeavour to attract the attention of persons on the shore, who might come to their aid in landing, or signify to them, if near enough to do so, the right moment when, and the safest place where to beach their boat.

We cannot conclude this humble effort to render a service to the the boatmen and other seamen who may be exposed to risk on our own coasts, or elsewhere, without addressing a few words to shipowners in case it should come to their notice.

We think that they would be rendering an important service, nay, would be only fulfilling an important duty, by endeavouring to afford their. servants, the crews of their vessels, every reasonable protection to their lives in case of shipwreck, or the necessity for taking to their boats.
It would not put any owner to a very great expense to fit up one boat in his vessel as a life-boat, or so far as a life-boat that she should not founder with her crew in if filled by a sea.
It would put him to no great trouble or expense, when supplying her with a new boat, to ascertain whether it might not bo constructed of a form better calculated to afford security on any emergency to his crew.
It would not put him to o very great expense to furnish a life-buoy to his vessel and as many good life-belts as the number of his crew.
These trifling things supplied to all vessels, as they ought to be, would be the means of saving many a poor fellow's life; the supplying them would not only fee a duty to humanity, but an act of policy, as wo may surejy presume that it would also afford a balm to the conscience, and a solacing reflection to the old age of the shipowner who had, whether required by law or not, supplied them -a balm and a reflection which could never for a moment bo realised by him who on looking back over his past career, could number his lost crews by dozens, yet had never made any serious efforts to afford them that security which, as a man and as a Christian master, he ought to have done.

This cluster at the SE. extremity of the Paumotus Archipelago, and  WNW. of Pitcairn Island, was discovered by the Missionary ship Duff, in 1797, and named by Mr. Wilson, her commander, after Admiral Lord Gambier.
 It consists of four large islands and several smaller ones, situated in a lagoon formed by a reef of coral, and lying between latitude 23-1 and 23-15 S., and longitude 134-49 and 135-3-30 W.
They are all (with the exception of two sandy reef islets, on the northern and western aspects) extremely steep and rugged, and obviously of volcanic origin, clothed with verdure, and for the most part with trees.
...
Contrary to the usual custom in this quarter of the globe, the Mangarevans do not go upon the water in canoes, but have rafts or catamarans instead, in the management of which they evince considerable dexterity.

Trove

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